Articles on the web about ancient cultures and their creation myths (creation story and/or cosmology), provided by the students in SCI 105.001 (Fall 2007):

AFRICA

· Egypt (1)
http://www.aldokkan.com/religion/creation.htm
The ancient Egyptians worshiped many gods. Each god that they worshiped was a god of a certain thing. For example: Ra was the god of the sun and Geb was the god of the earth. Water is very important in desert regions and so the Egyptian culture revolved around the Nile river. Because water was so important to the Egyptians, water also played a big part in their creation stories. The Egyptians had three different creation stories. In the first two creation stories the world is created as the gods are born. At first there is only water and then Ra is the first god to be born in both stories. Then new gods are born and as they are born other parts of the world come into existence. For example, the god of air is born and so air now exists. or the god of land is born and then land exists. The third creation story is just that one god created the earth and all of the other gods. As I said before the first two creation myths revolved around water and so those two creation myths can relate to their culture because water was very important to the Egyptians.

· Egypt (2)
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/egypt/religion/mythology.htm
http://eawc.evansville.edu/essays/howard.htm
http://www.egyptvoyager.com/religionlessons_3_part1.htm
The culture and creation myth of ancient Egypt follows some of the same unusual and obscure legends as other cultures but slightly different in variation. The Egyptians believe that the world was nothing but a chaotic body of water called Nun and the god Atum created himself from the chaos. Being as though Atum was alone on the Earth and needed more gods, he spat out a son, Shu (god of air), and vomited his daughter, Tefnut(goddess of moisture). From them, the god of the earth, Geb, and the goddess of the sky, Nut was produced. This duo had 4 offspring which included Osiris, Isis, Seth and Nephthys, better known as the gods of kinship. These nine gods and goddess’ became known as the Ennead of Heliopolis. One well-known practice of the Egyptians is mummification, which originated from a popular myth of Osiris. Osiris was a very popular and sovereign king, being said, resentment ignited in his brother Seth. As a usual affect of jealousy, Seth wanted to get rid of him. According to the legend, Seth locked Osiris in a coffin and sent it down the Nile River where it was discovered by a king. When Osiris’ wife-sister, Isis, found out she immediately recovered the body but soon after Seth chopped it up in pieces and strewn them throughout Egypt. As a devoted wife, Isis found every piece of Osiris and wrapped them in linen cloth. She then breathed life into him and he became the ruler of the underworld. To the Egyptians, Osiris represents life, death and resurrection and his story initiated the utilization of mummification.

· Egypt (3)
http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/life/story/main.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt
Description - Located in North East Africa along the mid to lower extremities of the Nile River ancient Egyptians were among the first to incorporate supply and demand. The traded often in local market areas various goods needed for survival of their people of which they could not personally produce. The floods of the Nile made it possible for their harvest to be that of plenty. They made homes in the country made up of “mud-bricks”. They made clothing of kilt/linen and shoes of leather and reeds. Overall they also appear to be people of prosperity and of the land. They made clothing and jewels of gold and semi-precious stones.
Cosmology - Their Cosmologies consisted of gods, mythology and cult temples. Their secrecy and division as far as who was allowed to obtain the highest spiritual knowledge also reflects the division/downfall of Egypt. Due to their secrecy of their cosmology the people perished for lack of knowledge. All was destroyed by the discreetness of their cosmologies.

· Egypt (4)
http://www.mythome.org/creategy.html
The ancient Egyptians’ creation myth explains the origin of not only their world but of the gods that they so fervently worshiped as part of their every day life. The Egyptians believed that everything was formed from an ocean of chaos called Nun. The sun god Ra was the first to emerge from the ocean and he gave birth to children who became the god’s of air, moisture, earth, and sky. Ra then created men from his tears.

· Ghana
http://africa.mrdonn.org/ghana.html
The ancient africans of Ghana were a unique group of individuals. The site states that, the people were farmers and miners and artists. They made the most wonderful fabrics. Using mud to make designs on dyed cloth and set in the sun made mud cloth. The sun baked the mud and created a design in the cloth. They had fresh fruit and sweet potatoes. They had the Niger River, which provided water for farming, washing, and bathing, and fish and waterfowl to eat. They worked very hard, but their life was good. They had ample food. They were protected.

· Zulu (South Africa)
http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Zulu.html
The Zulu people come from the Natal Province in South Africa. They claim to be descendants of their patriarch Zulu who was born in the Congo basin area in the 16th Century. They are generally farmers and herders. Typically, the job of most men and boys is to help with maintenance and collecting of food, whether it is farming or mending to the cattle. Unkulunkulu is the Zulu creator. The Zulu believe that he came from “the reeds” and brought to the earth people and cattle. He is known as the creator of everything that exists, and is the one who taught the Zulu how to hunt, how to make fire, and how to grow food. It is interesting that cattle are specifically mentioned in the Zulu’s creation myth. This is probably due to the fact that cattle raising is vital to The Zulu’s survival.

AMERICA

· Apache (North) (1)
http://www.indians.org/welker/creation.htm
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/northamerica/apache.html
http://www.crystalinks.com/apache.html
The apache tribe was a fierce warlike tribe known mostly for fighting against the white men. They are very religious and pray on many occasions. Ceremonial dances are a big part of their lives, and feast and dance are used to celebrate religious events. They live in extended family groups under a matriarch, and they frequently took part in raids. Self-importance was a central characteristic of their culture. With this it was important that they continually prayed to the Giver-of-life, their omnipotent deity, for power. The creation myth for the Apache tribe involves an initial creator, The One Who Lives Above, and many helpers whom he makes. It also starts with a void of darkness and nothing like many other creation myths do. The Creator awakens from a sleep and light comes forth. Many of the separate creations involve the Creator singing something four times; the number four is a major motif throughout. Eventually after all was made, the gods went their separate ways to perform their assigned tasks as the Creator left them entirely. The Creator also left his twenty-eight helpers to populate the earth. The apache tribe was a matriacial society, which may be attributed to the fact that dominion over all was given to a goddess-- not a god; the Creator left Girl-Without-Parents in charge over everything. Likewise, the gods are not exclusively male or female, which may suggest an inherent equality of sexes in their cultrure. This could explain why each apache tribe had a head man and a head woman.

· Apache (North) (2)
http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/AA/bma33.html
The Apache people are natives of North America and are regarded by many as descendants of its original inhabitants. The Apache were different from other Native Americans in that they were completely nomadic and lived almost entirely off of hunting Buffalo. This created an interesting dynamic, as life depended upon constantly being on the move and following the buffalo herd. The apache people’s creation myth is best described as a very long fable that I cannot fit on this page. The best summary can be found at
http://www.dreamscape.com/morgana/miranda.htm#APACHE
The creation myth entails creatures like the scorpion that interact and even shape the lives of the Apache. It is because of this that the Apache have a great respect and reverence for the animals.

· Aztec (Central) (1)
AZTEC CREATION MYTH
http://www.indians.org/welker/aztec.htm
The Aztecs were a Mexican tribe. They believed that the cosmos were created when Huitzilopochtli murdered his siblings the stars and the moon were plotting to kill him because his mother, Coatlique had given birth to him when it was wrong to give birth after having the original set of offspring. For a very detailed description of the Aztecs creation myth, visit http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1994/3/94.03.03.x.html
AZTEC CULTURE.
http://library.thinkquest.org/27981/culture.html
This article describes the art, language, music and dance of the Aztecs. The Aztecs were very artistic and had stone workers and feather workers. The children were taught to sing, dance and play various instruments like the trumpet, rattles and drums. Their language was called N’ahuatl. It was a system of pictures which were used as the alphabet. Their writing which was specialized was read by the scribes or the priests. They wrote with charcoal and then finished off with minerals and other things.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE AZTEC CREATION MYTH AND THEIR CULTURE.
http://library.thinkquest.org/16325/y-rel.html
Prayer was a very important part of the Aztecs’ culture. They always offered sacrifices to their gods. As legend has it, these were human sacrifices, mostly of the prisoners of war.

· Aztec (Central) (2)
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9011557/Aztec
The exact origin of the Aztec people is still not certain, but it is believed they were a group of hunters and gatherers. The Aztecs had other names such as Aztlan of "white land" in representation of their origins believed to be in northern Mexico, the Tenochca from their ancestors, the Tenoch, or Mexica from Metzliaplan. Their religion was that of a mix, it shared many beliefs from the earlier Mayan people.

· Aztec (Central) (3)
http://www.dreamscape.com/morgana/miranda.htm#AZTECAztec
Creation myths seem to grow out of the cultures from wince they came, especially in the case of the Aztecs. The Aztecs are known to have been a very violent culture using animal and sometimes human sacrifices to appease their gods. Their creation myth, unsurprisingly, involves violence as well. Coatlique is the mother of the Aztec civilization who somehow became pregnant from and obsidian knife. Her daughter is the goddess of the moon and her sons are the stars. Coatlique again became pregnant much to her children’s displeasure. They decided to kill their mother, but before they could commit the terrible dead, Coatlique boar Huitzilopochtli, the god of war. The god of war began killing all of his brothers and his sister. This caused a huge catastrophe and the earth was fertilized by it.

· Cherokee (North)
http://www.hyperhistory.net/apwh/essays/comp/cw02navajo_cherokee.htm
The Cherokee Indians creation myth and their culture were very connected. The Cherokees believed that they came from animals. The first two people were a brother and sister and the sister had babies every seven days but later she was only allowed to have a baby once every year. This belief that they came from animals was prominent in their culture because the Indians were very respectful of animals and in many cases worshiped them.

· Haudenosaunee (North)
http://www.oneida-nation.net/creation.html
The Haudenosaunee Creation Myth illustrates two major beliefs of its people: that people possess both good and evil qualities and that no one is perfect. They believe the Earth was initially completely covered by water and no light shone. The Sky Woman fell from the Land of Happy Spirits into the Lower World. The sea creatures saw her and wanted to catch her because they were afraid of what would happen to her when she landed. They surrounded a turtle and placed dirt on its back. The turtle would eventually become known as North America. The swans flew to the Sky Woman and brought her to the turtle. Soon after she landed, the Sky Woman had twins whom she named the Good Spirit and the Evil Spirit. The Sky Woman died after giving birth to the Evil Spirit, and the Good Spirit made the sun, stars, and moon from his mother's body and buried the rest under the earth. She then became known as Mother Earth. The Good Spirit provided light, and the Evil Spirit, darkness. The Good Spirit completed the earth and created man. The creation myth is related to the Haudenosaunee culture because it portrays the common notions that people are both good and evil and that no one can be perfect; the creation myth states that the Evil Spirit has servants who can inhabit man to make him do evil things.

· Hopi (North)
http://www.dreamscape.com/morgana/umbriel.htm
The Hopi Tribe is a particularly matrilineal culture, which means that they general trace descent through the maternal line. They believe that the world began as "Endless Waters," and two gods reigned: Tawa and Spider Woman. They split themselves into four deities and reproduced so that there were multiple gods. Tawa and Spider Woman set the Earth in between the Above and Below. Then they created the earth and its creatures as we know them now. The Spider Woman decreed that the people trace their family lines by way of the woman towards the end of the creation story. The creation myth is related to the Hopi culture because it shows the importance of the woman through the Spider Woman and her powers, and it also shows how important the Hopi view their matrilineal ways. This creation story is also known as an emergence myth, which is popular particualarly with the Native Americans. It offers the view of Earth as a womb, and the people emerge gradually and grow in each stage.

· Inca (South) (1)
http://www.crystalinks.com/incan.html
Like most ancient civilizations, the exact origins of the Incan people are unknown with most of its source coming from oral traditions, stone, pottery, jewelry, and tapestry. The civilization was short lived, just shy of 100 years. The Incans named their empire, "Land of the Four Quarters" because it stretched north to south 2,500 miles along the Andean Range from Columbia to Chile. In the Andean mythology, the Incans were considered descendants of the sun. As a result the Incan people would worship the sun with a celebration that was held annually from to thank the sun for growing the crops. The Incans worshipped the sun god, Inti. The origins of the Incans describe how the sun god sent his children to find Cuzco, the sacred city and captial of the Inca Empire.

· Inca (South) (2)
http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/latam/inca.html
The Incans were a people who had an almost socialistic empire when it came to the distribution of resources and labor. The Incans were much like the ancient Aztec people, in that they inhabited South America in about the same time period. Most of the Incans were farmers, and they relied heavily on grain harvesting. The Incans believe that in the beginning the earth was covered in darkness. Then, out of a lake called Collasuyu, the god Con Tiqui emerged, bringing some human beings with him. Con Tiqui created the sun, the moon and the stars to light the world and created more human beings out of the rocks Then he sent these people off into every comer of the world. He kept a male and female with him at Cuzco, also known as the "navel of the world." The Incans are polytheistic and accordingly erected temples and monuments to these Gods. Each God represented an important part of their life and so the Incans believed that to live a good life, one had to pray to each God and sometimes make sacrifices to them.

· Lakota (North)
http://www.indianlegend.com/lakota/lakota_001.htm
http://www.elexion.com/lakota/lakota2.htm
1. Lakota culture involves very many rites and ceremonies for many of the stages in life. For example, there is a rite for the making of relatives, the preparing of a girl for womanhood, and the rite of purification. Much of the Lakota culture deals with symbolism. There is symbolism found in natural beings, tools, objects, homes, as well as in concepts. The Lakota people have a deep spiritual foundation and a great respect for all living beings.
2. It is believed that Wakan Tanka, the Great Spirit, may have been angry for some reason and so Unktehi, a water monster, fought with man and caused a great flood. All of the land flooded except for a sacred place on a high hill where people ran to for salvation. Their attempts were unsuccessful and all of the people died and so did the water monster. The blood of the people formed a sacred pipe made of red rock. An eagle saved one beautiful girl from the flood and made her his wife. People and animals had a very close connection then that made this possible. The two had twins that created a nation of Lakota people.
3. The fact that the presence of the people that died in the flood is still felt through the red pipe during ceremonies explains why ceremonies are such an important part of the Lakota ritual. Since the Lakota nation is known as "the eagle nation", it also makes sense that symbolism would be such an important part of their culture.

· Maya (Central) (1)
http://www.metareligion.com/World_Religions/Ancient_religions/Central_america/Maya_creation_myth.htm
The Mayans were a very advanced indian culture that no longer exist today. When they did exist they were very respectful to their gods and would offer sacrifices to them. The Mayans believed that there were four gods who wanted to create people to enjoy the world. At first the gods tried to make man out of clay but man that was made of clay proved to be too weak. then they tried to make man out of wood. However, the wooded man could not with stand fire very well. Next the gods made a man out of gold. The gold man was good but he was unable to worship the gods. The gold man remained on the earth but finally one of the gods decided to make man from his own flesh. The man made from flesh was good and was able to worship the gods. One day the men made from flesh found the gold man and their kindness towards him turned the gold man to flesh. From then on it was the gold mans job to take care of the other men. The lesson of the creation story is for the gold men, or the rich, to take care of the other men, or the poor. Another lesson of the story is to show kindness.

· Maya (Central) (2)
http://www.civilization.ca/civil/Maya/mmc01eng.html
http://www.indians.org/welker/Maya.htm
http://www.Mayan-world.com/cosmos-m.htm
The ancient Maya civilization had a unique and prominent culture. They are renowned for their development of astronomy, the calendar, and hieroglyphics. Painting and architecture were significant aspects of the Mayan culture. Also domesticated, the Mayans were skilled farmers, weavers, and potters. The civilization believed that life and death was an ongoing cycle. They also believed the earth to be flat and four-cornered. Above the earth was a multi-layered sky (supported by ceiba trees), in which a god of some sort dwelled in each layer. Below the earth was an underworld in which the sun, the moon, and Venus were thought to disappear to at night when they descended. Mayans also believed that this underworld was the inevitable destination after death. The earth was compared to the back of a crocodile resting in a pool with the double-headed serpent as its sky equivalent. An example of how the culture is related to the creation myth is that the double-headed serpent is the symbol for the sky. This is because in the Mayan language, the word for “sky” and “snake” are similar. As a result, in hieroglyphics, the body of the “sky serpent” is marked with celestial bodies.

· Maya (Central) (3)
http://www.meta-religion.com/World_Religions/Ancient_religions/Central_america/maya_creation_myth.htm http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/CIVAMRCA/MAYAS.HTM
http://www.mexconnect.com/mex_/hclassic3.html
The Mayans developed a culture closely related to what we call an urban culture. Their empire was mainly located in modern day Central America and covered the southern part of Mexico extending down to Honduras. Most of the locations where the Mayan people built their cities were in tropical rain forests. Because of the limited resources that the rain forest provided to the Mayans, they could not fully develop their urban culture. The Mayan cities were built near natural water hole that allowed the Mayans to survive in the rain forest. Most of their culture revolved around farming, including maize, beans and peppers. For the Mayans time, they were very advanced in science. Astronomers from this culture were able to predict the cycle of the moon, and were even able to predict when eclipses would occur. There were four gods that decided to make a man that could enjoy the earth and give praise to the gods. The first god suggested that they make a man out of clay but it quickly fell apart. The second god suggested a making a man out of wood but it burned up in a fire. The third god suggested a man out of gold and this one survived all of the tests but could not speak move or praise the gods. The fourth god decided to make a man out of his own flesh and these men were able to move and speak and give praise to the gods so the gods were happy. One day the men of flesh found the man of gold and made him come to life and he also praised the gods. The gods called the man of gold rich and the men of flesh poor and said that from then on no rich man could enter heaven without the help of a poor man. The Mayans were a very intelligent people and their creation story reflects a higher level of intelligence than many other creation stories. They also were very religious and by saying in the creation story that no rich man could enter heaven without the help of a poor man reflects their religious influence.

ASIA

· China (1)
http://www.dreamscape.com/morgana/ariel.htm
http://www.chinetra.com/
1. The culture of the Chinese people includes a regard for lucky numbers based on the mystical good and bad related to some numbers. The Chinese people also follow a lunar calendar that is the longest chronological record in history, dating back to 2600 BC. Feng Shui is also a very vital part of the Chinese culture as it guides people to living a life that is in harmony with nature.
2. The creation myth of the Chinese people begins with a big black egg carrying Pan Gu, the creator, and chaos. After 18 thousand years, Pan Gu broke open the egg from the inside with an ax. He then created the earth and the heavens by separating heavy matter and light matter from the egg. After Pan Gu's death, his breath became the winds and the clouds and his eyes became the sun and the moon. The story of Pan Gu is frequently told and is an important aspect of Chinese tradition.
3. The creation myth of Pan Gu relates most closely to Chinese culture through the importance of Feng Shui. Since so much of Pan Gu's existence when he died became parts of nature, it makes sense that Chinese people would want to be in such perfect harmony with nature.

· China (2)
http://www.sfmuseum.org/chin/foot.html
In ancient chinese culture the performed a weird practice known as foot binding. It was performed on women because it was thought that women with big feet were unattractive. They would break the women’s foot during her early years. This practice was just part of the everyday life of the ancient chinese.

· China (3)
http://emuseum.mnsu.edu/prehistory/china/timeline.html#ancient
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_China
Neolithic China, the Yangshao and the Lungshan, both centered in lower extrimities of the “Yellow River”.These are people of great work and diligence. They used their surroundings to create clothing out of materials such as hemp. Often they boiled the cocoons of silkworms to produce “raw silk” of which was also used for clothing. The structure of their living environment, located on the plains of east china, living in homes of a rectangular-shaped, located below ground level. The economical status grew from hunter-gatherers to farmers. They believed in respecting their elders as apart of their spiritual practice.
Cosmology of Ancient China: 3 Religions Confucianism-Taoism-Buddhism
Relation: Their Cosmologies are related to their complete way of life. From my readings they appear to be rather strict and prosperous. Their cosmologies as well as their culture both reflect a sense of peace in their way of living.

· Hindu (India)
http://www.thefreelibrary.com/India’s+Ancient+Religion-a072117352
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_India
The Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro civilization was one of the 1^st civilizations of the Indus Valley located in the western part of South Asia. This group of people were around 2500 to 1700 B.C.They were known greatly for their advanced way of living. For instance, their homes and buildings were two to three stories high. They were very architectural as far as their city was concerned even down to their drainage systems. These people grew their own crops and stored them in a community storage center. They made clothing of materials such as silk and cotton. They were very economical people. Unlike other civilizations there was no indication of separation among economical status.
Cosmology - They all appeared to live a life of the same/harmonious. Which reflected the connection of their cosmology – polytheism? Polytheism worship many gods, usually all surrounding or represented by the contents of the earth. From what I’ve read they not only worshiped earthly contents such as sun, moon etc., but they also mastered the earth in their diversity of skills used to live together comfortably.

· Jain (India)
www.ibiblio.org/jainism/database/BOOK/jaincltr.doc
http://www.answers.com/topic/jain-cosmology
http://www.religionfacts.com/jainism/beliefs.htm
http://www.answers.com/topic/jainism
http://www.jainworld.com/book/jaindecl/ch2.asp
Jainism is a very ancient, independent religion practiced mostly in India and south Asia. Jains, or followers of Jainism, believe in a world with three levels. The top level houses the “divinities,” or followers who have already been liberated in the Jain culture. The ones who are being liberated make up the middle level, and the ones who have not quite reached that point stay in the bottom most level where there are seven hells. The middle level is also home to a “world mountain” called “meru” in which all continents and oceans are located around. Jains also believe in a reoccurring time cycle. The first cycle is the Progressive cycle, also known as Utsarpini. During this, all aspects of life such as happiness and strength move in a progressive manner, and everything tends to improve. On the opposite end, Avsarpini is the regressive time cycle where things get worse as the cycle continues. When this cycle is complete, all religion dies out and people become sinners. Jains believe that no living thing shall ever be harmed (non-violence) which goes hand in hand with the fact that they are strict vegetarians, not even eating eggs. According to them “Ahimsa parmo dharmah” (Non violence is the supreme religion). Jains are also strong believers in karma. They don’t believe in a “creation god” but do believe in other lesser gods. According to Wikipedia, Jains believe that “the universe was never created, now will it ever cease to exist.” There is no beginning and will be no end. They also believe that the more senses an animal has and is able to use, the higher up on the ladder they exist and the more responsible they are for the lower animals.

· Zoroastrian (Persia)
http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/Pa-Pr/Persian-Mythology.html
http://www.pantheon.org/areas/mythology/middle_east/persian/articles.html
http://www.mythome.org/Avesta.html
Because the myths of early Persian people and the religion of Zoroastrianism are hard to extricate from one another, I have lumped both into one for the sake of clarity. Culture: The mythology of Persia that is known today through such texts as the Zend-Avesta dates back to around 1500 B.C., a time filled with turbulent strife in a region that was continually seeing new foreign influences and military conquests. Zoroastrianism itself arose sometime near 500 B.C. and quickly spread, itself being an early example of a dualistic religion in which two main forces vie for power against one another. For the most part a militaristic nation, Persia’s mythology often focused on tremendous battles and the roles of gods as generals of armies. Also, the mythology spotlights certain numbers as being lucky or ominous, such as the numbers three, nine, and three thousand. Creation Myth: According to Zoroastrianism, two main forces (Ahura Mazda or Ohrmazd, god of light, and Ahriman or Angra Mainyu, god of darkness) always existed, but between them was nothing but either air or a complete vacuum. The world was created when Ahriman, unaware of Ahura Mazda’s existence, attacked the light he saw before him and Ahura Mazda, aware of Ahriman from time immemorial, retaliated by sending light into the vacuum. Next, Ahriman created his army of dregvants or demons to fight for him, and Ahura Mazda created the yazatas, or angels. From these angels was born vohuman, or good thoughts, but Ahriman countered with mitokht (falsehood) and akoman (evil thoughts). To stop Ahriman’s advances, Ahura Mazda uttered the Ahunwar, a prayer that froze Ahriman in his tracks for three thousand years, during which Ahura Mazda created the sky, water, earth, plants, animals, and, finally, mankind. After three thousand years had passed, Ahriman broke free and devised methods to draw humans over to his side, but after another three thousand years, Ahura Maza was fated to win control once again. Zoroastrianism also had other, understated deities, such as Verethragha, a god of war and victory, and Anahita, a goddess of water and fertility. Connection: In relation to Persian culture, the mythology reflects the nation’s militaristic intentions by portraying not only a great battle between good and evil, but by designating numerous gods and goddesses to the art of warfare, much like the ancient Greeks and Romans, who existed at the same time as their Persian counterparts. The mythology explained why some people were righteous while others were criminals and cut-throats, and it gave people a sense of their origins by explaining the divine hand in the creation of the world and its people.

· Yami (Taiwan)
http://www.worldandi.com/public/1987/september/cl2.cfm
http://www.geocities.com/asia_correspondent/taiwan00yamitribect.html
http://www.sinica.edu.tw/~dlproj/eversion/yamei_e.html
The Yami are a small group of people located on an island named Irala off the coast of Taiwan. During the Ching Dynasty (1644-1912), the Yami had almost no contact with Taiwan, and the Japanese closed the island to the public until 1945. So, the Yami civilization has changed very little over the past five-hundred years. Their creation myth involves a rock falling from the sky onto an already present empty island. The rock forms into the first man. Then a shoot of bamboo falls from the sky and becomes the first woman. They have a main god called Simo-Rapao who is given credit for the creation of people. All the other gods are believed to report to Simo-Rapao about the activities of the Yami. When the gods inform Simo-Rapao of bad activities, the Yami are punished with food shortages and other calamities. The Yami do not have a clear mythology on the creation of the universe, though there is one disputed story about how a giant separated the land and the sky, which were originally one. There is also one other god, Sio-Mima, who controls the rest of the world. The rest of the world to the Yami consists of Japan, Ivatan, Taiwan, and America. Yearly, there is a festival in which there is a sacrifice made in honor of all the gods. There is also a belief that the milky way consists of flying fish that stuck to the sky before the sky was separated from the land. Fishing is a main component of life for the Yami. Before the start of the fishing season, the men wave their helmets to the fish to welcome them. Yami culture revolves around fish. The “king of flying fish” is very important and is the center of many rituals throughout the year. According to myth, this king appeared to an elderly man in a dream and then instructed him on how to live properly. Since fish are so sacred, there is much taboo on the subject. Certain fish can only be eaten by certain people and at certain times in life. Some fish can only be eaten by pregnant women, and some can only be eaten by old men.

AUSTRALIA & OCEANIA

· Aborigine (Australia)
http://www.orac.net.au/~mhumphry/aborigin.html
http://www.factmonster.com/spot/aboriginal1.html
http://www.crystalinks.com/aboriginals.html
The culture of the Aborigines is very unique and can be described in a variety of ways. Even today 2% of Australia’s population is aboriginal. The real meaning of the word Aborigine is “the people who were here from the beginning” which exhibits how far into the past their culture dates. The Aborigines were divided into clans which whom they help close-knit relationships and relied on for food and protection. They survived being hunters and gatherers of animals and water. Art was very important to them and was more than simply a decoration. Bark painting is characteristic of their culture and body painting was involved in religious ceremony. Simpler paintings were a way for story telling and even beadwork and baskets were popular. Initiation ceremonies were vital to bringing both girls and boys into adulthood. Most important was the male ceremony which then allowed him to marry and have children. The creation or cosmology of the Aborigines ties into their religion which states that the people are themselves a part of the land. They refer to the beginning of the world as “Dreaming” or “Dreamtime” which was when their spiritual ancestors traveled throughout the world forming the earth, sky, animal forms, and humans. The ancestors such as “Fertility Mother” and “Great Rainbow Snake” are still mentioned in ceremonies today and were also responsible for setting up the rules the Aborigines were to follow for living. Their cosmology is related to their culture because their ancestors who formed the earth or have died throughout the years are metamorphosed into nature where they continue to be “spiritually alive”. This guides the Aborigines to truly respect and honor the land they gather from and live upon. They do not see humans as any higher than nature because they are all united as one.

· Easter Island
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/easter/
http://www.islandheritage.org/eihistory.html
http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/24/042.html
Long ago the ancient Polynesian people migrated thousands of miles to inhabit the Pacific islands. The Easter Island civilization is believed to have been one of these sea- faring people from Polynesia. Current evidence suggests that this “Lost Civilization” transformed Easter Island with its culture. Rapa Nui, which is now the name for Easter Island, is said by linguists to have first become inhabited by the people of East Polynesia. The Polynesians who apparently had a very sea- faring culture often came across the Pacific with double canoes looking for an uninhabited island when their current island became overpopulated. The Easter Islanders are believed to have arrived at the island in that same manner about AD 700. Beginning in AD 1000 to1680, the population of Easter Island began to increase. However, even though the civilization seemed to be thriving, the effects of this significant increase in population would lead to the culture’s ultimate collapse. During this time the people began to cut down the once flourishing palm trees for agriculture and transportation of gargantuan sized sculptures called Moai. The increase in Moai carving and transporting resulted in deforestation, soil depletion, erosion. Eventually food shortages became rampant as well. Ironically, the Moai, which was intended to be a representation of the people’s spiritual and political connection, had an unintended negative affect on the islanders and the island. Historians believe that the ancient inhabitants used the Moai as representations of important leaders in their society and a connection to the spiritual world. During ceremonies they used them to communicate with the gods. They were built on top of ahu which means shrine to overlook ceremonial areas. These statues were created by master craftsmen of the society. Unfortunately, the creation and transportation of these statues caused much deforestation and depleted the small island’s resources. It is only a speculation how Moai was transported but it is apparent that they were moved from one place to another. Despite their negative effects, the presence of these stone giants reflects the ancient history of an island that would have otherwise not been so interesting.

· Samoa
http://www.samoa.co.uk/creation.html
http://www.samoa.co.uk/music&culture.html
1. Respect and religion are very important aspects of Samoan culture. Samoa's motto is "Samoa is founded on God." Family is also very important in Samoan culture and families are usually very large, with 12 or more children. The Samoan people enjoy sports and dancing for entertainment and competition purposes.
2. Tuli was the son of Tagaloa who went in the shape of a bird down from the heavens to the ocean's surface. When he found no place to rest he went back and complained to his father, who then created land. He again complained to his father that he kept getting wet by the overflowing ocean, and his father made the land larger until it satisfied his son. Two men were created by Tagaloa from the grass of the land to again satisfy his son. When one of the men died Tuli complained to his father who turned the dead male into a living female. The two beings then became man and wife.
3. The Samoan creation myth explains why family and respect are so important to their culture. Tagaloa made huge efforts to please his son and his son in turn respected his father greatly.

EUROPE

· Dacia (Romania)
http://www.geocities.com/cogaionon/article8.htm
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-42862/Romania
http://www.angelfire.com/journal/dacians/
The Dacians were and obscure people who inhabited the Orastie Mountains between 1st century B.C. and 1st century A.D. Despite their lack of resourced, with the exception of iron, the Daciens were very productive during their times. Although little of their language is known, most scholars believe they spoke in the family of Indo-European languages. Music was an integral part of the Dacian culture and they implemented it in many ways. They would have ceremonies using an early form of the guitar as well as vocals that were a wonder to be witnessed. The main god of the Dacians was Zalmoxis, who represents the clear and open sky. The center of the Dacian religion was their belief in immortality. Once a Dacian passed away, he or she was to live forever in heaven with Zalmoxis. The Dacians worshiped other gods as well. Ares, the god of war, aided them in their battles and brought them many victories. There was also a goddess named Bendis who was goddess of the moon and the forest. The creation of the world in the interpretation of the Dacians has yet to be completely discovered. They were more focused on the afterlife rather than how the world came to be.

· Etruscan (Italy)
http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/etruscans.htm
The Etruscan people were located in northern Rome between the Arno and Tiber River and to the west of the Appennine mountains. The exact origins of these people are unknown as a result of its distinct differences it has compared to other cultures that were located near it. One big difference being that its language did not originate from the Indo-European like most of the other languages located in Europe. The origins of the people are most likely from a mix of an invader who brought a language and new culture and mixed it with the aboriginal people of whom owned the land, very well possible to be the Villanovan Culture. It is a possible explaination that very little is known about the people because there may no longer have any surviving members. The culture of passing members of the civilizations was that of cremation, which makes it difficult to examine the bodies of the dead. In contrast the jars that carry the the ashes contain art that further describe the people.

· Norse (Scandinavia)
http://www.meta-religion.com/World_Religions/Ancient_religions/Europe/norse_creation_myth.htm
The Norse are ruled by traditions of Christianity as well as heathen. Their creation myth states that there was void in the beginning of time. This void is called Ginnungagap, which is hypothesized to mean "yawning gap," or "beginning gap." There was also the "land of ice and fog" in the North and the "land of fire" in the South. In the North existed a spring from which the Elven Rivers stemmed. The rivers froze and filled the entire North. The mix of fire and ice caused the rivers to melt and create the figures of a giant, Ymir, and a cow, Audhumla. Ymir could reproduce frost giants with the sweat of his arms and legs. Audhumla created the god Buri by licking salty ice. Buri had a son, Bor, who fathered Odin, Ve, and Vili. The sons of Bor killed Ymir, and his blood flooded the land and killed all of the frost giants save two. Ymir's corpse was placed in Ginnungagap and formed the earth and sky. The stars, sun, and moon were created with the sparks from the South. Bor's sons created the first two humans, Ask and Embla, from two logs lying on the beach.      The creation myth is related to the Norse culture because it does use elements of Christianity as well as inventive mythology. One primary Christian aspect is Ask and Embla, the first two humans; it seems to be similar to Adam and Eve. The usage of giants and gods and their unique ideas of creation illustrates the Norse appreciation and usage of heathen mythology and storytelling. 

Modern or philosophical:

· Islam
http://www.innovationslearning.co.uk/subjects/re/information/creation/muslim_creation.htm
I was very surprised at the Muslim creation story because it is very similar to the creation story of Christians. In both stories there is only one god who creates the world. The order that things are created in both stories are very similar and man is the last thing that is created in both. In both stories the creator breathes life into the man and then creates a woman out of the man. Also in both stories there is a fall of man where man disobeys the creator's order and is kicked out of the paradise that is created for them. The Muslim creation myth is related to their culture because from it they believe that it is their job to watch over gods creation. They strongly believe that there is only one god and that they are required to do whatever god wills.

· Amish
http://www.religioustolerance.org/statbelief.htm
The amish people are a group of individuals whose beliefs differ greatly from those of modern Americans. Some of the beliefs that they have are. In the inherent worth of every person. People are worthy of respect, support, and caring simply because they are human. In working towards a culture that is relatively free of discrimination on the basis of gender, race, sexual orientation, national origin, physical disability, age, etc. In the sanctity of the human person. We oppose the use of torture and cruel or unusual punishment including the death penalty. They kept the same original lifestyles that we once had when everything was made and produced by hand. Their culture is a reflection of the way they go about life. They find a fulfilling life in using natures gifts to get along in their daily task.

· Confucianism
http://www.religioustolerance.org/confuciu.htm
http://www.religion-cults.com/Eastern/Confucianism/confuci.htm
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O88-Confucianism.html
Confucian culture emphasizes on harmony, respect for authority, loyalty, benevolence, meritocracy, literacy, and scholarship. It is primarily an ethical system to which rituals at important times during one's lifetime have been added. The T'ai-shen (spirit of the fetus) protects the expectant and sets a special procedure. The mother is given a special diet and is allowed rest for a month after delivery. Marriage also has set rules that play in Confucian culture. There are specific rules the couple must follow that involve the proposal, engagement, dowry, procession, marriage, reception, and the morning after. At death, they also have traditions they must follow in order to properly bury the dead. It is debatable whether Confucianism should be called a "religion." It prescribes a great deal of ritual, but little of it could be construed as worship or meditation in a formal sense. Confucius occasionally made statements about the existence of other worldly beings that sound distinctly agnostic and humanistic. Confucianism is often considered a secular ethical tradition and not a "religion." Therefore, they do not pronounce a specific creation myth.

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Articles on the web about ancient cultures and their creation myths (creation story and/or cosmology), provided by the students in SCI 105.004 (Fall 2006):

General webpages covering many cultures:
http://www.dreamscape.com/morgana/miranda.htm | 

Webpages covering specific ancient cultures:

• Aborigine (Australia): 
  http://www.upfromaustralia.com/dreamabstoro.html |
  http://www.safaris.net.au/info/dreaming.htm |
  http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/aboriginalheritage/ |
  http://www.aboriginalart.com.au/culture/ |
  http://indigenousaustralia.frogandtoad.com.au/cultural.html |
  http://www.infoplease.com/spot/aboriginal1.html |
  
  A)  The Aborigines have a very ritual based culture. In order to fully discuss their ceremonies, a local Aboriginal person must be present. They have many ceremonies, in which they reenact the “Dreamtime,” which is their creation story. They also express their beliefs by painting on rocks and in sand. Ancestors are very important in the Aboriginal culture. Because the Aborigines are nomads, many different groups exist among them, thus creating many dialects and differences in vocabulary. The Aborigines believe that the Earth has always been here and has been the home of supernatural beings. However, the supernatural beings were dormant under the crust of this planet, along with “semi-embryonic masses of half developed infants” (upfromaustralia.com). They believe that the surface of the Earth was simply a barren plain. According to the Aborigines, time only began when these beings awoke and came to the surface of the earth and the sun rose from the ground. These beings, known as totemic ancestors, were not all the same, however, and they turned into all sorts of animals and humans. The animals thought and acted like humans, and the humans could change into animal form at any time. The mountains and other physical features of the earth were created by the movements of these totemic ancestors. While they were here on Earth, the sun and the moon rose into the sky. The ancestors wandered the planet until they finally vanished back into the earth, leaving man to roam the earth. The places where they returned to the center of the earth came to be regarded as sacred. The “Dreamtime” heavily influences the culture of the Aborigines. The stories of this creation period are very important, and are guarded by individual members of each clan. These stories are then acted out during the ceremonies and festivals, and are thought to keep the ancestors happy. Also, the places where the ancestors are thought to have re-entered the center of the earth are considered sacred, and are often the places where the ceremonies or festivals occur.
  
  B)  Aborigines are the indigenous tribes of Australia, and their ancestry leads to the belief that they probably migrated from Asia to Australia thousands of years ago. They pass on traditions and stories of their culture through oral storytelling and are most recognized for their famous instrument, the didgeridoo.  Aborigines attribute their lives and creation to the “Dreamtime”. The “Dreamtime” is the start of the world and creation. The aborigines believed that their “ancestors” came from below earth to form the parts of nature, like animals, bodies of water and the sky. Aborigines put humans on the same level as nature, as they believe that some of their ancestors actually are part of the animal species.  The aborigine culture closely ties their culture with their creation myth, as their storytelling and other traditions are all meant to explain their creation. They also value art which shows the beauty and originality of nature and their creation.
  
  C)  With a variety of up to 700 types of Aboriginal languages, language plays a key role in understanding the Aboriginal history. It also plays a big role seeing as though their history is mainly an oral history. Seeing as though there were inland and coastal tribes, the aboriginals had to be very adaptive to the territory they lived in. Their tools where in indicator of the type of landscape they lived in. Land was very sacred and at the core of the aboriginal beliefs.  The Creation Myth of the Aboriginal's was that of Dreamtime. This Myth stated: 2 beings, self created out of nothing, the Ungambikula, wondered the earth carving half-made human beings into whole human beings with their stone knifes. They believed that the humans owed allegiance to the totem of the animal or plant that made the bundle they were created from. Their creation myth relates to the culture in that the Creation myth is based on an owed allegiance to the land and the culture is based around a belief in the land being very sacred.
• Ainu (Japan):
  http://www.ainu-museum.or.jp/english/english.html |
  
  The Ainu people have many different theories that describe their origin. The one theory that has become the most accepted by scholars and theorists is the “Mongoloid Theory”. This theory states that the Mongoloid peoples were once split in two: The Northern Mongoloid and the Southern Mongoloid. Over tens of thousands of years ago, the Southern Mongoloid people started moving north to eventually settle the Japanese Archipelago, specifically Okinawa. In the Yayoi and Tumulus Periods, the Northern Mongoloid came across the sea to Japan. The Japanese that are the non-Ainu people that have evolved speedily from all of the migration to this area. The era of the Ainu’s extended from about 1400 to the early 1700’s. The Ainu people had a very unique culture that relied heavily on certain aspects of fishing, hunting, and agriculture, sacred dancing, and eating habits. They gained a lot of there uniqueness from their oral literature, clothing, and certain ornaments that distinguished the men and women.  
  
  The Ainu’s creation myth begins with the world as nothing but a quagmire where nothing could live, but there were six skies above and six worlds below in which dwelled Gods, demons, and animals. In the skies above lived Kamui, the creator God, and his servants. He made the world as a vast ocean that rested on the backbone of a large trout. This trout sucks in the ocean and spits it out again to make the tides, and when this fish moves it causes earthquakes. Kamui decided that he wanted to make something of this world, and so he decided to send down a water wagtail to do the work. The Ainu’s creation myth is related to their culture in that they perform sacred dances to Kamui to scare away evil spirits, and they also perform dances with a bird theme (I assume to bird that helped create the world).
• Apache [Dine] (Southwest North America):
  http://www.indians.org/welker/creation.htm | 
  http://www.dreamscape.com/morgana/miranda.htm#APACHE | 
  http://www.the-office.com/bedtime-story/apache-creation.htm | 
  http://www.meta-religion.com/World_Religions/Ancient_religions/North_america/apache_culture.htm | 
  
  The Apache were a group of Indians who lived in the Southwestern part of the United States. They were descendents of the Athabascan people form the north. The Apache called themselves the Dine which means people but everyone else called them the Apache which means the enemy. The Apache were known for being very good hunters and being fearless warriors. They lived in small huts because they were constantly moving. The Apache creation myth starts with in the beginning nothing existed then out of thin air a yellow and white disc appeared with a man with a long beard on sitting within it. This man creates everything including 3 more gods who help him create stuff. Then all the gods shook hands and there sweat created a small brown bean. Then the old man passed the bean to the other 3 Gods touched it and it slowly grew until finally it turned into earth.
• Celtic (Europe):  
  http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/mlcr/index.htm |
  
  The Celtic people were a people that resided on land from Britain to Gallatia, although they had no actual written record of this occupancy. The first written record of the Celts doesn’t show up until 400 B.C., in northern Italy. The people who made up the various tribes were called Galli by the Romans and Galatai or Keltoi by the Greeks, which means barbarian. After the Celts height of power, they were pushed NW by consecutive waves of Indo-European peoples, particularly Germanic and Latin based. The main migration was by the Gauls into France, northern Italy, and the north of Europe.  The Celts regarded the wheel and spiral as sacred because it represented the constant spinning of the stars in the night sky. The Celts believed that the north star was the location of heaven. The Celts based their cycle on the moon instead of the sun. The old Celtic festivals which used to be important that are now “Holidays,” are Halloween, May Day, and Christmas, just to name a few. Supposedly, some say, that Stonehenge was built by the Celts, but others say that it wasn’t. Although it may not have been, It fits in well with the culture that they would have built it because of their cosmology. They believed that the wheel/spiral was sacred, and this relates to their cosmology because Stonehenge is built in a circular fashion. This relates their cosmology to their culture because of the specific pattern that is present without their reign.
• Cherokee (North America):  
  http://www.meta-religion.com/World_Religions/Ancient_religions/North_america/cherokee_culture.htm |  
  http://www.meta-religion.com/World_Religions/Ancient_religions/North_america/cherokee_cosmogony.htm |  
  
  The Cherokee people were good farmers who had settled down and owned houses that were made of woven limbs and plastered with mud. They created their own alphabet and published their own newspaper in their native language, which was a variation on the Iroquois language. They adapted to the white man's way of life and became very prosperous farmers with large cultivated fields. The Cherokees believe that the world was created when a water beetle brought some mud up from under the water and created and island the was suspended by 
  rope from the four corners. Eventually the world would get old, the people would die, and the ropes would break sending the island back under the water. The mountains were created from a great buzzard beating his wings. When the other animals saw what was happening they stopped him, that is why only the Cherokee land has mountains. The Cherokee believe that the underworld can be reached through the headwaters of streams and rivers. They also believe that the underworld has different seasons than us because the water is cool in summer and warm in winter. The Cherokee people were very close with nature and depended on it for everything they needed. Because they were so dependent on it, they used nature to explain how everything happened. They used the things they knew like the animals and the streams to explain how their world was created and how it was going to end.
• China (East Asia):  
  http://chinaonyourmind.com.cn/about%20china/Religion.htm |
  http://chinaonyourmind.com.cn/culture%20center/people.htm | 
• Dogon (Mali, West Africa): 
  http://www.crystalinks.com/dogon.html |
  
  The Dogon are a tribe that inhabits a part of Mali, southwest of the Sahara desert in Africa. They are a farming people that have been separated from the outside world for centuries. They are thought to be of Egyptian descent, which would help explain their fascination with astronomy. The Dogon creation myth starts with Amma, the sky god and creator of the universe. Her first living creation was Nommo, who gave the Dogon people their astronomical information. Most specifically their information on the star system Sirius. Their creation myth is related to their culture because the Dogon priests had unusually accurate knowledge about the Sirius star system, which they claim was given to them by the Nommos, one of the first creations of Amma, creator of the universe. This knowledge of the stars has been passed on orally for thousands of years. It is interesting to know how they had this information when it wasn’t even known to modern science until recently.
• Druid (British Isles, Europe):  
  http://britannia.com/wonder/michell2.html | 
  http://skepdic.com/Druids.html | 
  
  The ancient Druids people arrived in Britain by invading it around 600 B.C. What we know about the Druids is very little because their beliefs were mostly passed orally and their religious ceremonies were mainly private and not down out in public. With no written tradition and no major temples where art might provide a key to some of the Druids' activities, we must rely upon the words and speculations of foreign observers. We do know how the druid people lived in community, each tribe had its own territory which was owned by the tribe as a whole. The Druids became known manly by them building stonehenge. Stonehenge is still a mystery today, nobody is quiet sure why it was built and how they built it. It is believed that stonehenge was built around 2000 B.C. by the Druids. The Druids are believed to of used stonehenge for a place for religious ceremonies or worship. Stonehenge and the Druid people are a mystery 
  because all the history and information of them was passed orally and no written information is available.
• Egyptian (Nile Valley, North Africa): 
  http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/menu.html |
  http://www.eridu.co.uk/Author/myth_religion/egyptian.html |
  http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/egypt/religion/mythology.htm | 
  
  A)  The culture of the Egyptians was based on government. The land of Egypt was ruled by monarch who possessed complete power over their subjects however they also had religious significance. They were seen as living gods among mortals. This was what gave them their unlimited power; they were seen as more than human beings. Their creation myth takes the form of a cycle of death and rebirth. The creator embodies a proto-earth that existed before the creation of the universe. After an unknown violent event that causes the death of this proto-earth the creator frees himself from his former body and rises into the sky. The proto-earth then rises from the watery abyss and breaks open expelling that which will become the sun, moon, and stars. This shows the separation of the heavens from the earth. After a period of unrest in the heavens order returns and the universe is created. Then the creator returns to possess his new body the newly formed earth. This cycle of death and rebirth is evident in Egyptian culture through their worship of cyclical events, such as the rising and setting of the sun and the moon. They also placed great importance on the death and rebirth of the Nile, or agriculture, as well as the kings who ruled their civilization.
  
  B)  The Egyptians were also an agriculturally-based society, but one that relied heavily on the yearly flooding of the Nile River which spread fertile silt across the fields and made it possible to grow crops in the parched river valley. Egyptians believed that the first god Atum rose on a hill from Nun, the dark water of chaos and spat out Shu and Tefnut, the god of air and the goddess of moisture who, in turn, gave birth to the sky goddess and the earth god, Nut and Geb. Their children, Osiris and Isis became king and queen of the world until Osiris was killed by his jealous brother Seth. Isis and the jackal-headed god of death Anubis brought Osiris back from death by embalming his reassembled body. The story of Osiris’s return in the afterlife became the basis of the Egyptian practice of mummification as well as the custom of building elaborate tombs filled with provisions for the dead person’s soul on its journey to the afterlife.
  
  C)  The Ancient Egyptian culture, much like any other ancient culture, believed their society to be at the center of the universe and the height of civilization. The Egyptians sought to understand their surroundings, and their civilization and way of life was dependent on the Nile river. The Egyptians are what we would refer to today as pagans. They worshiped many gods, and would perform rituals to appease them. The creation story of the Egyptians revolves around the Nile. Water is the essence of life, and in ancient times, water would determine what societies thrived. The god who created everything is called Nu, and the myth tells about how Nu would flood the area every year, until one day Nu let the floods subside. The emergence of land and of the Sun that day brought forth new gods. The Egyptians worshiped Nu, the sun, the moon, and the sky. The story of creation for these ancient people obviously points to their dependence on the Nile river. The Egyptians were farmers and depended heavily on water. Their religion revolves around their way of life.
• Filipino (Philippine Islands, East Asia):  
  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_%28until_1521%29 |
  http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/creation-phil.html#howtheworld | 
  http://www.geocities.com/tokyo/temple/9845/spirit.htm | 
  
  The culture of the ancient Philippines:  The Philippines have been inhabited by man for over 30,000 years. The first men to arrive were hunter-gatherers who lived in caves across the islands. These people eventually became fishermen. A tradition of arranging the dismembered body parts of a deceased family member in a burial jar existed for thousands of years amongst the Philippines. The Philippines existed as a set of patriarchal hunting tribes for many years. These tribes were divided into smaller tribes after the last ice age when the melting ice caused the water levels to rise and the land bridges which connected the island clusters to disappear. The Filipinos developed primitive canoes and other means of transportation between the islands. 
  
  Creation myth or Cosmology of the ancient Philippines:  In the beginning there was only the ocean and the sky. Two gods existed, the ruler of the water was Maguayan and the ruler of the sky was Captan. The sea was the daughter of Maguayan and the wind was the son of Captan. Maguayan and Captan agreed that their children were to be married to one another. The wind and sea had 4 children, a son with a body of rock, a son with a body of gold, a son with a body of copper, and a daughter with a body of silver. After the wind and sea died, the son with the body of rock was left in charge of the wind. Having this power made him want more power, so he convinced his brother to help him attack the domain of their grandfather Captan. The son of rock attacked the steel gates which guarded Captan’s domain with all the might of the wind and succeeded in twisting the gates apart. An enraged Captan attacked his grandsons with thunderbolts, melting his sons of gold and copper into balls and blasting his grandson of rock into many pieces. The granddaughter of silver, missing her brothers, went looking for them. When she came across Captan, she was accidentally blasted into many pieces by one of the enraged Captan’s thunderbolts. Captan and Maguayan mourned the loss of their grandchildren and though they couldn’t bring the dead back to life, they could give their spirits light forever. The grandson of gold became the Sun, the one of copper became the moon, the daughter of silver became the stars. The son of Rock, however, because of his crime was made the land and forced to bear life for a new people. Captan gave Maguayan a seed, which he planted on the land. A bamboo tree grew and out of one of its branches a man and a woman came out. These people multiplied and one of their children became a fisherman. The fisherman caught a shark, which he believed a god and he forced everyone to worship it. The true gods, Maguayan and Captan, appeared to the people and told them to throw the shark back and that it was no god. The fisherman didn’t believe them and said that if he had captured the shark, he could capture the other gods too. Captan struck him with a small thunderbolt, as he did not wish to kill the foolish fisherman, but merely teach him a lesson. Captan and Maguayan also decided to punish the other people by separating them. They took them to the north, east, and south. All these people, because they lived in different climates and ate different things became the many different races there are today. The descendants of the foolish fisherman became forever black because of the burns their progenitor suffered.
  
  How is their myth/cosmology related to their culture?  The fact that the fisherman who caught the shark is related to the defining occupation of the Filipino’s culture could relate to the arrogance some men may feel when successful at fishing. This could be construed as a lesson used to teach young people that they should not be arrogant and think they have conquered the world, when the world is actually much bigger than them. The fact that one of the patriarchs of the world was the sea and the sky is important to the sea faring aspect of the Philippine culture. Also, the fact that the creator gods were male is important to the leadership of the tribe as the male is the provider and master.
• Greek (Greece, Southern Europe):  
  http://www.cs.williams.edu/~lindsey/myths/myths_16.html | 
  
  Ancient Greece was the center of math, literature, drama, and science in the old world. Or at least, this is what the Greeks believed. Their civilization was a step above anything that had come before them. Greeks mythology suggests numerous gods who are in a hierarchy (Zeus being at the top), and the story of creation being very theatrical where the gods seized power from the titans. The Greek culture put a strong emphasize on nature, science, love, and philosophy, that they had gods who controlled each of these realms. The Greek cosmology reflects exactly what the times were like back then. 
• Hausa (West Africa):  
  http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/oldworld/africa/hausa.html | http://www.flw.com/languages/hausa.htm | 
  
  The Hausa people are an African culture located in Nigeria and parts of Niger called Hausaland. Their population is diverse because of it’s ability to intermarry and communicate with different people. They have their own language called Hausa and is derived from Arabic, Fulfulde, and Kanuri languages. Some can speak English and French just as well as they speak their own language. They grow their own crops and have a wide variety of them. The Hausa people eat porridge for breakfast, lunch, and dinner. They eat other foods too, but this is obviously one of their favorites. They don’t eat much meat, but they consume plenty of beans, peanuts, and milk. Like many other cultures, they are Islamic and pray to Allah and Mohammed many times a day. Some Hausa people do not follow the Islamic faith and they are referred to as Maguawa. They worship spirits called bori or isoki. Different from other cultures, children are not named until the Islamic naming ceremony and when a Hausa dies, they are washed, wrapped in shroud, and buried facing eastward because the holyland of Mecca is in that direction.
• Hindu (South Central Asia): 
  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu#Hindu_people |
  http://www.hinduwisdom.info/Hindu_Culture1.htm |
  
  Hinduism is not just a religion; it is also a philosophy and a culture. Family groups and society are an integral part of Hindu culture. Early Hindu cities show immense cooperation with each other in the form of well planned cities, and a complex drainage and plumbing system. There is also evidence to suggest that Indian philosophers were the first to develop the Arabic numeral system (Hindsaa - in Arabic means from India). A large part of Hindu culture is that the earth is timeless, which is part of their creation myth as well.   The Hindus believe that the universe is without a beginning or an end.  Rather the universe is projected in cycles. Time immemorial is measured in cycles called Kalpas. A Kalpa is a day and night for Brahma, the Lord of Creation. A Brahma, or Lord of Creation, lives for 311.4 trillion human years. After the death of each Brahma, there is a Mahapralaya or Cosmic deluge, when the entire universe is destroyed. Then a new Brahma appears and creation starts all over again. Because the earth is cyclical, the human spirit never leaves, but changes form based upon what amount of good the person has pursued in their life. Thus, the man who performs virtuous or sinful deeds, goes, after death, to heaven or hell, and assumes different bodies. Many Hindu’s are extremely well-behaved because of this, but some think they have reached the point of no return and go forward, farther into the darkness.
• Inca (South America):  
  http://www.crystalinks.com/inca.html |
  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inca_civilization | 
  
  The Incans were a polytheistic society, believing in many gods. Farming played a key role in their existence, with vegetables, corn, potatoes, and nuts as staples in their diet. The Incan civilization was divided into four regions with Inca at the center. These regions had different dialects and different beliefs; however, all worshipped similar gods. Inti Raymi, or the feast of the sun, was one of the large celebrations that the Incans had.  There are various versions of the creation myth for the Incans. Since the Incans did not have writing, all myths were passed down verbally or through art, which could explain the various stories I included two of these myths: One state that Earth was in complete darkness until the god Con Tici came out of a lake, bringing with him some humans. He then created the sun god (Inti) and carved more men out of stone, sending them to the four corners of the world. As time passed, the people stopped praising Con for the things he had given them, so he stopped the rainfall. Then Inti created Pachacamac, who turned Con’s men into monkeys and created his own men, the ancestors of man. In another, four sons and four daughters were sent out to create a village. One the way, a son was born who led them to Cuzco where they formed the empire. One of these men was Manco Capac, who is thought to be the original leader of the Incas.  The Inti Raymi celebration was held to honor the Sun God who played a large role in many of the creation stories. In addition, Pachacamac was often worshipped as the earth god. Because of their strong need for agriculture, both Pachacamac and Inti played key roles in their lives and were worshipped often in an attempt to maintain good crops. The myth about the four sons and four daughters also may have played a role in their culture, representing the four regions of the Incan empire.
• Maori (New Zealand): 
  http://www.crystalinks.com/maoricreation.html (Best viewed with Internet Explorer.) |
  
  The Maori are the indigenous people of New Zealand, an island off of the southeast coast of Australia. They were originally hunters, but soon became a farming people. The Maori creation myth states that heaven and earth were once joined as Rangunui, the sky Father, and Papanuatuku, the earth mother, lay together. They had many children who lived between them in the darkness. The children wanted to live in the light so they separated their parents. The two parents continue to grieve for each other to this day, as Rangunui tears fall from the heavens, and the mist from the forest is Papanuatuku’s sighs from the warmth of her body, which yearns to return to her lover. The Maori creation myth is related to their culture because the environment in which they live (rainy, humid forests) coincides with the belief that their sky father and earth mother continue to mourn for each other by tears from above (rain), and mist from the forests (sighs from Papa.)
  
  
• Maya (Central America): 
  http://www.art-poster-online.com/Maya.htm |  
  http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/latam/Maya.html |
  
  A)  The Mayan culture is most recognized for their architecture which is thousands of years old. These famous architectural monuments started out as simply burial mounds and have become world-renowned pyramids built for ceremonial purposes. They value these palaces and pyramids, as well as their famous artwork. However, artwork was not meant for appreciation, as all of it was created to pay homage in ceremonies, though its beauty is now appreciated.  The Mayan’s were based most heavily on their religious and spiritual beliefs, which stemmed from thirteen gods which ruled thirteen heavens, as well as nine gods which ruled nine underworlds. They have a special creation story which states that the world was created out of nothing by the will of the gods; humans being specifically made out of mud, then wood, and then maize before they could be assigned tasks.  The myth of creation for the Mayan’s and their culture are almost the same thing. Their culture is entirely based on their religious beliefs and practices. Even their architectural fame was created and based on religion.
  
  B)  Maya society existed mostly on the Yucatan Peninsula of modern Mexico from roughly 1000 BCE until the final decline about 900 CE, although some examples of Maya still exist in Mexico today. As agrarian society, raising mostly maize and other crops, Mayan religion centered essentially around three calendars, one based on the cycles of the moon, another on the sun and the third a combination of the two in a fifty-two year cycle, at the end of which the world died and was reborn. These calendars served to predict the seasons and regulate planting and harvesting, as well as predict the weather which might destroy the year’s crops, forcing the Maya delve into the previous year’s surplus or trade with other cities for food. Agricultural ceremonies as well as other rites and religion ceremonies were based upon these three calendars. The ceremonies were used to insure the satisfaction of the gods and of order to the world.
• Sumerian (Mesopotamia, Middle East):
  http://home.cfl.rr.com/crossland/AncientCivilizations/Middle_East_Civilizations/Sumerians/sumerians.html | http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/MESO/SUMER.HTM |
  http://www.fsmitha.com/h1/ch01.htm |
  http://www.eridu.co.uk/Author/myth_religion/sumerian.html |
  
  A)  The Sumerian culture brought about many things in the ancient world. They brought about a technological revolution that improved agriculture, as well as mathematics, architecture and commerce. They also helped form systems of education and courts of law. They developed sophisticated systems of government. However, the most significant development brought to the world by the Sumerian people was the birth of writing. They formed the first written language known as cuneiform. At first it was a system of pictographic symbols but later it became a system of wedge-shaped symbols. The religion of this great culture explains the beginning of existence as a great god in the form of a mountain bursting apart in the heavens and raining down upon the primordial earth. This symbolizes the mountain of heaven, personified by the god, impregnating the mountain of earth, which is shown through the goddess. Therefore their religion developed into the worship of a pantheon of gods and goddesses who each controlled a limited portion of the world and its functions. Finally there was the separation of the heavens and the earth. This final act of creation was performed when the great god formed the sun and moon and separated them from the earth. This religion affected the Sumerian culture through the people’s worship of the multitude of gods and goddesses. This was shown through statues that were in nearly all major cities. It is clear that other cultures, even the Greeks, who worshipped a pantheon of gods may have gotten the roots of their religious system from this remarkable people.
  
  B)  The Sumerians were the people who transformed the vast, flat lower valley between the Tigris and Euphrates into the Fertile Crescent of the ancient world, which is now southern Iraq. The Sumerians established the first great urban communities and developed the earliest known writing system. Ancient Sumer was not a unified nation; rather was made up of dozen or so of independent city-states. The Sumerians rules were the gods’ representatives on earth and the stewards of their earthly treasure. The rulers and priests directed all communal activities, including canal construction, crop collection and food distribution. The Sumerians worshipped many gods. Each city-state had its own special god or goddess to whom people prayed and offered sacrifices of animals, grain, and wine. These gods were very powerful and resembled humans. They believed the gods behaved just like regular people. They ate, drink and raised a family. They also believed the gods controlled the natural forces and were associated with astronomical bodies, such as the sun. The Sumerian people celebrated many holy days. The most important holy day was celebrated at the beginning of the New Year; similar to how we celebrate New Year’s Day today. They performed the ritual of the king marrying the goddess of love, Inanna during this celebration. They believed this would make the New Year fruitful and prosperous. The Sumerian’s knowledge passed on through various conquerors of the Middle East, which had a significant impact on the development of the western world.

More modern groups:
Freemasons:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemason#History | 
Illuminati:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminati | 
Scientologists:  http://www.scientology.org/en_US/l-ron-hubbard/index.html | http://www.neuereligion.de/ENG/Richardson/index.htm |